Climate change is already happening and represents one of the greatest environmental, social and economic threats facing the planet.
The European Union is working actively for a global agreement to control climate change and is taking domestic action to achieve substantial reductions in its own contribution. It is also developing a European strategy for adapting to climate change.
The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) shows that the Earth's average surface temperature has risen by 0.76° C since 1850. Most of the warming over the past 50 years is very likely to have been caused by emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other 'greenhouse gases' from human activities.
Without action to reduce these emissions, the global average temperature is likely to rise by a further 1.8-4.0°C this century, and by up to 6.4°C in the worst case scenario, the IPCC projects. Even the lower end of this range would take the temperature increase since pre-industrial times above 2°C - the threshold beyond which many scientists believe irreversible and possibly catastrophic changes would become more likely.
The European Union has long been at the forefront of international efforts to combat climate change and was instrumental in the development of the two United Nations climate treaties, the 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol, agreed in 1997.
The EU has also been taking steps to limit its greenhouse gas emissions since the early 1990s.
In 2000 the European Commission launched the European Climate Change Programme (ECCP) which has led to the adoption of a wide range of new policies and measures, including the pioneering EU Emissions Trading System.
The Kyoto Protocol requires the 15 countries that were EU members at the time ('EU-15') to reduce their collective emissions in the 2008-2012 period to 8% below 1990 levels. Emissions monitoring and projections show that the EU-15 is well on track to meet this target.
In 2007 EU leaders endorsed an integrated approach to climate and energy policy and committed to transforming Europe into a highly energy-efficient, low carbon economy. They made a unilateral commitment that Europe would cut its emissions by at least 20% of 1990 levels by 2020. This commitment is being implemented through a package of binding legislation.
The EU has also offered to increase its emissions reduction to 30% by 2020, on condition that other major emitting countries in the developed and developing worlds commit to do their fair share under a future global climate agreement. This agreement should take effect at the start of 2013 when the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period will have expired.
Friday, August 20, 2010
Latest Inventions in Science
If you are interested in the latest inventions in science, you should know that the scientists are currently working on the development of 'smart' contact lenses able to measure pressure within the eye and distribute medicament according to the measurements. They invented a new material called polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). Then, they managed to place powdered silver, with antimicrobial properties, on the PDMS in a precise pattern, thus creating conductive wires.
The scientists gave the PDMS-silver a contact-lens shape, so it could serve as a simple pressure sensor. A contact lens for continuous measurement of pressure within the eye and transmitting the data to a computer would greatly help doctors find out more about glaucoma, a major cause of blindness, and improve the ways of its treatment.
The scientists gave the PDMS-silver a contact-lens shape, so it could serve as a simple pressure sensor. A contact lens for continuous measurement of pressure within the eye and transmitting the data to a computer would greatly help doctors find out more about glaucoma, a major cause of blindness, and improve the ways of its treatment.
LATEST INVENTION IN MAN AND WOMAN
In spite of the common believe erotic photographs evoke different reactions for men and women , Center of Behavioral Neuroscience (CBN) study says. Women show more interest and pay more attention to sexual acts and men focus on faces.
Women and men were tested on visual response to erotic photographs that depicted sexual act to make clear the nature of sexual urges and its influence on health. The tests were made using eye-tracking technology that show the visual focus on various body parts. It was supposed that typical response to sexual stimuli would be women looking at faces and men looking at genitals. However, the results were unexpected and quite the opposite. Women were more attracted at sexual acts first and men would pay their attention at faces.
Previous study, published in Hormones and Behavior magazine concluded that sexual stimuli outlines gender differences, particularly for brain activity of men and women. Presumably women who took hormonal pills were more often focused on genitals and those who took no pills paid their attention to the context of the picture. Although it is known that men would more readily respond to visual stimulation, their concentration is initially less sexually oriented.
Researches suggest, that key to the findings may lie in peculiarities of brain activities in certain sections. From one of the fMRI (Functional magnetic resonance imaging) studies, conducted by Dr. Hamann and Wallen, where amygdalia brain section was examined, gender differences were prominently seen. Men showed increased brain activity in amygdalia viewing sexual stimuli. As amygdalia is known to deal with our emotions, there can be a link between this part of the brain and men's reaction to faces.
These scottsdale women are examples of women's beautiful faces, looking at which men could use their amygdalia to stir up their emotions.
Take part in a poll on the most unusual place you've ever had sex.
Powered by www.infoniac.com
Women and men were tested on visual response to erotic photographs that depicted sexual act to make clear the nature of sexual urges and its influence on health. The tests were made using eye-tracking technology that show the visual focus on various body parts. It was supposed that typical response to sexual stimuli would be women looking at faces and men looking at genitals. However, the results were unexpected and quite the opposite. Women were more attracted at sexual acts first and men would pay their attention at faces.
Previous study, published in Hormones and Behavior magazine concluded that sexual stimuli outlines gender differences, particularly for brain activity of men and women. Presumably women who took hormonal pills were more often focused on genitals and those who took no pills paid their attention to the context of the picture. Although it is known that men would more readily respond to visual stimulation, their concentration is initially less sexually oriented.
Researches suggest, that key to the findings may lie in peculiarities of brain activities in certain sections. From one of the fMRI (Functional magnetic resonance imaging) studies, conducted by Dr. Hamann and Wallen, where amygdalia brain section was examined, gender differences were prominently seen. Men showed increased brain activity in amygdalia viewing sexual stimuli. As amygdalia is known to deal with our emotions, there can be a link between this part of the brain and men's reaction to faces.
These scottsdale women are examples of women's beautiful faces, looking at which men could use their amygdalia to stir up their emotions.
Take part in a poll on the most unusual place you've ever had sex.
Powered by www.infoniac.com
Tuesday, August 10, 2010
Physics
Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space-time, as well as all applicable concepts, such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy. Over the last two millennia, physics had been considered synonymous with philosophy, chemistry, and certain branches of mathematics and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, it emerged to become a unique modern science in its own right. However, in some subject areas such as in mathematical physics and quantum chemistry, the boundaries of physics remain difficult to distinguish.
Physics is both significant and influential, in part because advances in its understanding have often translated into new technologies, but also because new ideas in physics often resonate with other sciences, mathematics, and philosophy. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products which have dramatically transformed modern-day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics nled to the development of motorized transport; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy. Over the last two millennia, physics had been considered synonymous with philosophy, chemistry, and certain branches of mathematics and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, it emerged to become a unique modern science in its own right. However, in some subject areas such as in mathematical physics and quantum chemistry, the boundaries of physics remain difficult to distinguish.
Physics is both significant and influential, in part because advances in its understanding have often translated into new technologies, but also because new ideas in physics often resonate with other sciences, mathematics, and philosophy. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products which have dramatically transformed modern-day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics nled to the development of motorized transport; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.
CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is the science of matter and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by physics, but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned with the composition, behavior, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions. It is a physical science which studies of various atoms, molecules, crystals and other aggregates of matter whether in isolation or combination, which incorporates the concepts of energy and entropy in relation to the spontaneity of chemica processes.
Disciplines within chemistry are traditionally grouped by the type of matter being studied or the kind of study. These include inorganic chemistry, the study of inorganic matter; organic chemistry, the study of organic (carbon based) matter; biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system (see subdisciplines
Disciplines within chemistry are traditionally grouped by the type of matter being studied or the kind of study. These include inorganic chemistry, the study of inorganic matter; organic chemistry, the study of organic (carbon based) matter; biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system (see subdisciplines
INVERTEBREATE ZOOLOGY
Invertebrate means lacking a spinal column. Animals in this category include species of the following: protozoans, annelids, cnidarians, echinoderms, flatworms, nematodes, molluscs, and arthropods. Invertebrates make up 90% of the Earth's animals. They range in size from minute to extremely large. They possess soft bodies and external skeletons.
Vertebrate zoology
Vertebrate means having a spinal column or backbone. Animals in this category include species of the phylum Chordata: fish, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and mammals. These are characterized by a segmented spinal cord and a distinct differentiated head. These animals possess internal skeletons which include the vertebral column which at least partially encloses the spinal cord and a skull which houses the brain. Vertebrates also usually possess two pairs of limbs and an outer covering (fur, skin, feathers).
ZOOLOGY
The approach to zoology in this manual is one that closely follows a phylogenetic theme and examines the functionality of animal structure. The initial exercises of this manual represent a survey of animal diversity and structural complexity. These chapters focus on the behavior of living animals, their adaptations to the environment and the dissection of representative species. A series of physiological exercises that constitute an experimental section follow the survey portion of the book. These experiments are designed to impart an understanding of functional morphology and examine the biological and physical factors that dictate the need for such structures.
A systematic overview is presented at the onset of each exercise to prepare the reader for the forthcoming material. Instructions on behavioral analyses, structural examination and tips for dissection are given throughout the text. The chapters are presented in an outline fashion, with a short introduction preceding specific material. Metric conversions are listed on the inside front cover, useful dissection terms are listed on the inside back cover.
Zoology is the branch of biology that includes the study of animals and animal life, including, but not limited to, the study of the structure, physiology and classification of animals. Zoology can be subdivided into two categories:
A systematic overview is presented at the onset of each exercise to prepare the reader for the forthcoming material. Instructions on behavioral analyses, structural examination and tips for dissection are given throughout the text. The chapters are presented in an outline fashion, with a short introduction preceding specific material. Metric conversions are listed on the inside front cover, useful dissection terms are listed on the inside back cover.
Zoology is the branch of biology that includes the study of animals and animal life, including, but not limited to, the study of the structure, physiology and classification of animals. Zoology can be subdivided into two categories:
BIOLOGY
Biology literally means "the study of life". Biology is such broad field, covering the minute workings of chemical machines inside our cells, to broad scale concepts of ecosystems and global climate change. Biologists study intimate details of the human brain, the composition of our genes, and even the functioning of our reproductive system. Biologists recently all but completed the deciphering of the human genome, the sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) bases that may determine much of our innate capabilities and predispositions to certain forms of behavior and illnesses. DNA sequences have played major roles in criminal cases (O.J. Simpson, as well as the reversal of death penalties for many wrongfully convicted individuals), as well as the impeachment of President Clinton (the stain at least did not lie). We are bombarded with headlines about possible health risks from favorite foods as well as the potential benefits of eating other foods such as cooked tomatoes. Informercials tout the benefits of metabolism-adjusting drugs for weight loss. Many Americans are turning to herbal remedies to ease arthritis pain, improve memory, as well as improve our moods.
Can a biology book give you the answers to these questions? No, but it will enable you learn how to sift through the biases of investigators, the press, and others in a quest to critically evaluate the question. To be honest, five years after you are through with this class it is doubtful you would remember all the details of meatbolism. However, you will know where to look and maybe a little about the process of science that will allow you to make an informed decision. Will you be a scientist? Yes, in a way. You may not be formally trained as a science major, but you can think critically, solve problems, and have some idea about what science can and cannoit do. I hope you will be able to tell the shoe from the shinola.
In order to conduct science, one must know the rules of the game (imagine playing Monopol and having to discover the rules as you play! Which is precisely what one does with some computer or videogames (before buying the cheatbook. The scientific method is to be used as a guide that can be modified. In some sciences, such as taxonomy and certain types of geology, laboratory experiments are not necessarily performed. Instead, after formulating a hypothesis, additional observations and/or collections are made from different localities.
Can a biology book give you the answers to these questions? No, but it will enable you learn how to sift through the biases of investigators, the press, and others in a quest to critically evaluate the question. To be honest, five years after you are through with this class it is doubtful you would remember all the details of meatbolism. However, you will know where to look and maybe a little about the process of science that will allow you to make an informed decision. Will you be a scientist? Yes, in a way. You may not be formally trained as a science major, but you can think critically, solve problems, and have some idea about what science can and cannoit do. I hope you will be able to tell the shoe from the shinola.
In order to conduct science, one must know the rules of the game (imagine playing Monopol and having to discover the rules as you play! Which is precisely what one does with some computer or videogames (before buying the cheatbook. The scientific method is to be used as a guide that can be modified. In some sciences, such as taxonomy and certain types of geology, laboratory experiments are not necessarily performed. Instead, after formulating a hypothesis, additional observations and/or collections are made from different localities.
Earth science
Earth science (also known as geosciences, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth, including geology, geophysics, hydrology, meteorology, physical geography, oceanography, and soil science.
Although mining and precious stones have been human interests throughout the history of civilization, the development of the related sciences of economic geology and mineralogy did not occur until the 18th century. The study of the earth, particularly palaeontology, blossomed in the 19th century. The growth of other disciplines, such as geophysics, in the 20th century led to the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s, which has had a similar effect on the Earth sciences as the theory of evolution had on biology. Earth sciences today are closely linked to climate research and the petroleum and mineral exploration industries.
Although mining and precious stones have been human interests throughout the history of civilization, the development of the related sciences of economic geology and mineralogy did not occur until the 18th century. The study of the earth, particularly palaeontology, blossomed in the 19th century. The growth of other disciplines, such as geophysics, in the 20th century led to the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s, which has had a similar effect on the Earth sciences as the theory of evolution had on biology. Earth sciences today are closely linked to climate research and the petroleum and mineral exploration industries.
Astronomy
This discipline is the science of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere. It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe.
Astronomy includes the examination, study and modeling of stars, planets, comets, galaxies and the cosmos. Most of the information used by astronomers is gathered by remote observation, although some laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomenon has been performed (such as the molecular chemistry of the interstellar medium).
While the origins of the study of celestial features and phenomenon can be traced back to antiquity, the scientific methodology of this field began to develop in the middle of the 17th century. A key factor was Galileo's introduction of the telescope to examine the night sky in more detail.
The mathematical treatment of astronomy began with Newton's development of celestial mechanics and the laws of gravitation, although it was triggered by earlier work of astronomers such as Kepler. By the 19th century, astronomy had developed into a formal science, with the introduction of instruments such as the spectroscope and photography, along with much-improved telescopes and the creation of professional observatories.
Astronomy includes the examination, study and modeling of stars, planets, comets, galaxies and the cosmos. Most of the information used by astronomers is gathered by remote observation, although some laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomenon has been performed (such as the molecular chemistry of the interstellar medium).
While the origins of the study of celestial features and phenomenon can be traced back to antiquity, the scientific methodology of this field began to develop in the middle of the 17th century. A key factor was Galileo's introduction of the telescope to examine the night sky in more detail.
The mathematical treatment of astronomy began with Newton's development of celestial mechanics and the laws of gravitation, although it was triggered by earlier work of astronomers such as Kepler. By the 19th century, astronomy had developed into a formal science, with the introduction of instruments such as the spectroscope and photography, along with much-improved telescopes and the creation of professional observatories.
Natural science
In science, the term natural science refers to a naturalistic approach to the study of the universe, which is understood as obeying rules or laws of natural origin.
The term natural science is also used to distinguish those fields that use the scientific method to study nature from the social sciences, which use the scientific method to study human behavior and society; from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, which use a different (a priori) methodology; and from the humanities.
Natural sciences form the basis for applied sciences. Together, the natural and applied sciences are distinguished from the social sciences on the one hand, and the humanities on the other. Though mathematics, statistics, and computer science are not considered natural sciences (mathematics traditionally considered among the liberal arts and statistics among the humanities, for instance), they provide many tools and frameworks used within the natural sciences.
Alongside this traditional usage, the phrase natural sciences is also sometimes used more narrowly to refer to natural history. In this sense "natural sciences" may refer to the biology and perhaps also the earth sciences, as distinguished from the physical sciences, including astronomy, physics, and chemistry.
Within the natural sciences, the term hard science is sometimes used to describe those subfields which some people view as relying on experimental, quantifiable data or the scientific method and focus on accuracy and objectivity. These usually include physics, chemistry and biology. By contrast, soft science is often used to describe the scientific fields that are more reliant on qualitative research, including the social sciences.
The term natural science is also used to distinguish those fields that use the scientific method to study nature from the social sciences, which use the scientific method to study human behavior and society; from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, which use a different (a priori) methodology; and from the humanities.
Natural sciences form the basis for applied sciences. Together, the natural and applied sciences are distinguished from the social sciences on the one hand, and the humanities on the other. Though mathematics, statistics, and computer science are not considered natural sciences (mathematics traditionally considered among the liberal arts and statistics among the humanities, for instance), they provide many tools and frameworks used within the natural sciences.
Alongside this traditional usage, the phrase natural sciences is also sometimes used more narrowly to refer to natural history. In this sense "natural sciences" may refer to the biology and perhaps also the earth sciences, as distinguished from the physical sciences, including astronomy, physics, and chemistry.
Within the natural sciences, the term hard science is sometimes used to describe those subfields which some people view as relying on experimental, quantifiable data or the scientific method and focus on accuracy and objectivity. These usually include physics, chemistry and biology. By contrast, soft science is often used to describe the scientific fields that are more reliant on qualitative research, including the social sciences.
Basic classifications
Scientific fields are commonly divided into two major groups: natural sciences, which study natural phenomena (including biological life), and social sciences, which study human behavior and societies. These groupings are empirical sciences, which mean the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same condition. There are also related disciplines that are grouped into interdisciplinary and applied sciences, such as engineering and health science. Within these categories are specialized scientific fields that can include elements of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminology and body of expertise.
Mathematics, which is classified as a formal science, has both similarities and differences with the natural and social sciences. It is similar to empirical sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using a priori rather than empirical methods. Formal science, which also includes statistics and logic, is vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in formal science have often led to major advances in the empirical sciences. The formal sciences are essential in the formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws, other in discovering and describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people think and act (social sciences).
Mathematics, which is classified as a formal science, has both similarities and differences with the natural and social sciences. It is similar to empirical sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using a priori rather than empirical methods. Formal science, which also includes statistics and logic, is vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in formal science have often led to major advances in the empirical sciences. The formal sciences are essential in the formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws, other in discovering and describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people think and act (social sciences).
History of science
Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by researchers making use of scientific methods, which emphasize the observation, explanation, and prediction of real world phenomena by experiment. Given the dual status of science as objective knowledge and as a human construct, good historiography of science draws on the historical methods of both intellectual history and social history.
Tracing the exact origins of modern science is possible through the many important texts which have survived from the classical world. However, the word scientist is relatively recent—first coined by William Whewell in the 19th century. Previously, people investigating nature called themselves natural philosophers.
While empirical investigations of the natural world have been described since classical antiquity (for example, by Thales, Aristotle, and others), and scientific methods have been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Ibn al-Haytham, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and Roger Bacon), the dawn of modern science is generally traced back to the early modern period, during what is known as the Scientific Revolution that took place in 16th and 17th century Europe.
Scientific methods are considered to be so fundamental to modern science that some — especially philosophers of science and practicing scientists — consider earlier inquiries into nature to be pre-scientific. Traditionally, historians of science have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those inquiries.
Tracing the exact origins of modern science is possible through the many important texts which have survived from the classical world. However, the word scientist is relatively recent—first coined by William Whewell in the 19th century. Previously, people investigating nature called themselves natural philosophers.
While empirical investigations of the natural world have been described since classical antiquity (for example, by Thales, Aristotle, and others), and scientific methods have been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Ibn al-Haytham, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and Roger Bacon), the dawn of modern science is generally traced back to the early modern period, during what is known as the Scientific Revolution that took place in 16th and 17th century Europe.
Scientific methods are considered to be so fundamental to modern science that some — especially philosophers of science and practicing scientists — consider earlier inquiries into nature to be pre-scientific. Traditionally, historians of science have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those inquiries.
Science
Science is a systematic enterprise of gathering knowledge about the world and organizing and condensing that knowledge into testable laws and theories. As knowledge has increased, some methods have proved more reliable than others, and today the scientific method is the standard for science. It includes the use of careful observation, experimentation, measurement, mathematics, and replication to be considered a science, a body of knowledge must stand up to repeated testing by independent observers. The use of the scientific method to make new discoveries is called scientific research, and the people who carry out this research are called scientists. This article focuses on science in the more restricted sense, what is sometimes called experimental science. Applied science, or engineering, is the practical application of scientific knowledge.
In the modern world, scientific research is a major activity in all developed nations, and scientists are expected to publish their discoveries in refereed journals, scientific periodicals where referees check the facts in an article before it is published. Even after publication, new scientific ideas are not generally accepted until the work has been replicated. Scientific literacy is the ability of the general population to understand the basic concepts related to science.
In the modern world, scientific research is a major activity in all developed nations, and scientists are expected to publish their discoveries in refereed journals, scientific periodicals where referees check the facts in an article before it is published. Even after publication, new scientific ideas are not generally accepted until the work has been replicated. Scientific literacy is the ability of the general population to understand the basic concepts related to science.
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